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A R
T S
Seljuk and Ottoman Turkish culture
is rich-and well represented in museums like ethnographic museums in Istanbul
and Ankara. They include fine example of calling raphy, rug weaving
of carpets is an industry that miniature painting. The weaving of
carpets is an industry that dates among the Turks from Seljuk times.
Much of the symbolism in the design of Turkish rugs and kilims is pre-Islamic
and shares its origins with the Turkish people in Central Asia. Nevertheless,
these rugs have become am important part of Islam. Turkish folk music
and dancing are popular. The ministry of culture was established
in 1971, and the government extensively supports a national network of
the arts, encompassing theater, opera, ballet, music, and fine arts, as
well as popular health centers in Turkey.
PERFORMING
ARTS
There are six varieties of traditional Turkish
performing arts:
Village Plays
Plays are put on in accordance with rural traditions
on special days, weddings and holidays.
Meddah
A kind of one-act dramatic play where the narrator
also imitates the various characters in the play.
Karagoz
Traditional show theatre, where the shadows of
human and animal figures, cut out of leather and colored, are thrown onto
a white
n using a light source behind it.
Orta Oyun
In style and theme resembles Karagoz, but is
performed by real actors
Tuluat Theater
A mixture of Orta Oyun and western theater
FOLK DANCES
Folk dances have different characteristics based
on region and location and are generally engaged in during weddings, journeys
to the mountains in the summer, when sending sons off to military service
and during religious and national holidays. The
best known folk dances are:
Horon
This Black Sea dance is performed by men only,
dressed in black with silver trimmings. The dancers link arms and quiver
to the
vibrations of the kemence, a primitive type of
violin.
Kasik Oyunu
The Spoon Dance is performed from Konya to Silifke
and consists of gaily dressed male and female dancers clicking out the
dance
rhythm with a pair of wooden spoons in each hand.
Kilic Kalkan
The Sword and Shield Dance of Bursa represents
the Ottoman conquest of the city. It is performed by men only, dressed
in early
Ottoman battle dress, who dance to the sound
of clashing swords and shields withoout music.
Zeybek
In this Aegean dance, colorfully dressed male
dancers, called 'efe', symbolize courage and heroism.
FOLK MUSIC
The lively Turkish folk music, which originated
on the steppes of Asia, is in complete contrast to the refined Turkish
classical music of the Ottoman court. Until recently, folk music was not
written down, and the traditions have been kept alive by the 'asiklar',
or Turkish troubadours. Distinct from Turkish folk music is Ottoman military
music, now performed by the 'mehter takimi' (Janissary Band) in Istanbul,
which originated in Central Asia, and is played with kettle drums, clarinets,
cymbals and bells. The mystical music of the Whirling Dervishes is dominated
by the haunting sound of the reed pipe or 'ney', and can be heard in Konya
during the Mevlana Festival in December.
PAINTING
Prior to Islam, painting among the Turkish tribes
developed along the lines of woven clothes, carpets and rugs, inlaid designs
in metal, leatherwork and wooden and iron decorations on arrows and swords.
The Uygur Turks gave up their nomadic way of life
before otherTurkish groups. Excavations in the cities of Turfan, Karahocu,
Bisbalig and other sites have unearthed religious wall paintings and pictures
in commercial records dating back to the ninth century and later periods.
The basic characteristics of form, design, color
and representation in Turkish art developed initially in miniatures. Turkish
miniature painting progressed slowly through the Seljuk and Ottoman Empires
to the conquest of Istanbul and the Lale Period (TulipEra). In the 15th
century, Mehmet the Conqueror invited renowned Italian painters to the
Palace to introduce western painting to Turkey. Contacts between the Ottoman
Empire and the west led not only to new social and political movements,
but also to a greater interest in the fine arts. During the Tanzimat period,
Sultan Abdulaziz attached more importance to the fine arts following his
discovery of western art during a trip to Europe. His collection of western
art was instrumental in the development of fine art in Turkey. The Berii
Humayun school, established in 1793, introduced painting lessons during
the Ottoman period. By the mid-19th century, painting lessons had been
introduced in all military and civilian schools. Students also traveled
to Europe to study painting.
The Sanayii Nefise School (now the Mimar Sinan
University Faculty of Fine Arts) was established in the 19th century. The
school's first twenty students studied painting, sculpture and architecture
under the direction of foreign instructors.
The works of the Turkish painters of the "Initial
Period,"sometimes referred to as "Turkish Primitives" or "Turkish Photo-Interpreters,"
can be seen today in the Istanbul Paintingand Sculpture Museum. The works
of this period are mostly landscapesand still lifes by such painters as
Osman Nuri, Giritli Huseyin, Ahmet Bedri, Ferid Ibrahim Pasa, Husnu Yusuf,
Tevfik Pasa, Seker Ahmet Pasa, Suleyman Seyyid Bey, Servili Ahmet Bey,
Huseyin Zekai Pasa and Hoca Ali Riza. The Turkish primitives were bound
to a realistic concept of art. The post-war painters, in turn, introduced
impressionism to the country. The most successful member of this group
was Halil Pasa, the first of the impressionists.
After the proclamation of the Republic, the Ottoman
Association of Painters continued its artistic activities under various
titles until the 1930s. The first members of this Association, founded
in 1908, were Ruhi Arel, Ibrahim Calli, Hikmet Onat, Asaf Agah, Kazim,
Huseyin, Hasim, Ahmet Ziya Bulut, Hoca Ali Riza, Muzzez, Mahmut, Mesrur
and Izzet. Well-known painters like Avni Livij and Feyhaman Duran also
joined the group. Because of the renown of the group's most prolific founder,
Ibrahim Calli, these painters are known as the Calli Generation.
Mostly graduates of the Sanayi-i Nefise Mektebi,
the Calli Generation did not quite follow in the footsteps of western art,
neither did they represent a completely native art style. expressionistic
use of color is the hallmark of paintings produced by the Calli Generation.
Other offspring of the Ottoman Association of
Painters include the "Independents," "Group D" and the "Yeniler" (modernists).
These groups bore little resemblance to the parent.The founders of the
Independents were Refik Ekipman, Hamit Gorele, Seref Akdik, Nurullah Berk,
Hale Asaf, Muhittin Sebati, Zeki Kocamemi, Avni Celebi, Mahmut Cuda and
sculptor Ratip Asir. The Independents did not rally round a single viewpoint.
They had, despite certain similarities, vastly differing styles.
Group D was formed in 1933 by Cemal Tollu, Nurullah
Berk, Zeki Faik Izer, Elif Naci, Abidin Dino and sculptor Zuhtu Muridoglu.
Most of the members had been students of Calli and his friends at the Sanayii
Nefise and had studied art in Europe. Group D addedthe strength of design
to the color of the Calli Generation, thereby achieving a form which emphasized
order and composition.
The "Yeniler" group, which was influential in
the 1940s, included Nuri Iyem, Agop Arad, Selim Turan, Avni Arbas, Nejat
Melih Devrim, Kemal Sonmezler, and the sculptor Yusuf Karatay.These artists
came together to underline the importance of social content in the face
of the extreme formalism and pro-Europeanism of Group D. They believed
art should address the problems of
society and reflect people at work, capturing
all the sorrows and joys of daily life.
Painters who preferred plain surfaces, rigid angular
forms andgeometric formations included Sabri Berkel, Halil Dikman, Cemal
Bingol, Semsettin Arel, Arif Kaptan and Hamit Gorele. Other painters, such
as Semsettin Arel, Abidin Elderoglu, attempted to place abstract painting
in a traditional context by using calligraphic design.
Conflicting trends, such as abstract versus figural
and universal versus local, in Turkish painting crystalized in the 1970s
with the appearance of new syntheses:
Five trends in Turkish painting became evident:
1. The abstractionists Sabri Berkel, Adnan Coker,
Omer Uluc, Burhan Dogancay, Erol Eti, Eral Anahtar, Adnan Turani, Gungor
Taner, Halil Akdeniz and Tomar Atagok.
2. Abstract or figurative formalist approaches
taken by: GurelYontan, Sukru Aysan, Ismail Saray, Ahmet Ostem and Serhat
Kiraz.
3. Lyrical quest in abstract figurative forms
led by: Ozdemir Altan, Turan Erol, Orhan Peker, Sadan Bezeyis, Mustafa
Esirkus,Nuri Abac, Erol Akyavas, Dincer Erimez, Burhan Uygun, Zahit Buyukisleyen
and, during recent years, Bedri Rahmi Eyuboglu.
4. Localist and socialist trends from: Osman Oral,
Ismail Altinok, Huseyin Bilisik, Duran Karaca, Kayihan Keskinok, Mehmet
Guler, Yalcin Gokcebag, Veysel Gunay and Mehmet Basbug.
5. Expressionistic and critical figurative approaches:
Aleattin Aksoy, Mustafa Ata, Nese Erdok, Mehmet Guleryuz, Ergin Inan, Kemal
Iskender, Balkan Naci Islimyeli, Ozer Kabas, Oral Kinali, Husamettin Kocan,
Ibrahim Ors, Kadri Ozayten, Gurkan Coskun and Utku Varlik.s were
SCULPTURE
Historically, sculpture in Turkey consisted mainly
of examples of schematic mass plasticity and stylized reliefs. The Ottomans
did not produce figurative or monumental sculpture. Sculpture gained importance
only following the proclamation of the Republic. The first monument commissioned
by the Republic was erected in 1925 in Gulhane Park, Istanbul. This was
followed by the Republican Monument in Takism in 1928. In the 1930s, Turkish
artists such as Resit Asir Acudoglu, Zuhtu Muridoglu and Kenan Yontac contributed
their individual styles to monumental sculpture.
In the 1950's, artists such as Sadi Calik, Turgut
Pura and Kuzgun Acar created original works that stretched the limits of
the concept of abstract art. The leading figures of more recent years are
Ali Teoman Germaner, Hakki Baha Cavusgil, Sabahat Acunar, Gurdel Duynar,
Tamer Basoglu, Namik Denizhan, Saim Bugay and Koray Aris. Known as artists
of the "intermediary generation," they created new rules for a more contemporary
sculpture.
MUSIC
Music in Turkey Turkey, rich in musical heritage,
has developed this art in two areas, Turkish
classical and Turkish folk music. When describing
Turkish music today it is generally said that Ottoman composers availed
themselves of the rich musical heritage found in the cultural centers of
the Abbasid and the Timurogullari, where Turkish, Araband Iranian musicians
performed and created music known as Ottoman court music. This music was
based on mode and human voices.
The mode and musical instruments of Turkish music
can be found in all middle-east countries. However, with the passing of
time, there have been changes in the mode from region to region. Although
written sources indicate 600 modes, only 212 have survived to our day.
These can be divided as follows:
1.Simple modes,
2.Combined modes,
3.Modes with changing pitch.
Through the centuries many instruments have been
used in Turkish music, such as the ud, tanbur, kemence, ney, kanun, kudum,
bendir, def, halile, lavta, santur, rebap, musikar, cenk and sinelkeman.
The various types of Turkish music differing in modes and pitch include
tunes and
spirituals and are classified as kar, murabba
beste, agir semai, yuruk semai, sarki, pesrev, saz semai, taksim, gazel,
ilahi and kaside.
Turkish music is also graded under the four headings
below:
1.Non-religious music (with or without words),
2.Military music,
3.Mosque music,
4.Islamic mystic music.
The history of Turkish music, especially in regard
to melodic variations, can be divided into four periods. The first is the
formation which goes back to the years 1360-1453, when the Turks adopted
Islam. After the conquest of Istanbul, but prior to the period of classical
music, Ottoman music was influenced by Byzantine music, mainly in the years
1640-1712. The greatest proponents of the Ottoman style after the exemplary
classical music created by Itri were Ebubekir
Aga, Tab'i Mustafa Efendi, Kucuk Mehmet Aga,
Sadulla Aga, Padisha III Selim and Ismail Dede Efendi. The period from
1955 onwards has been designated as the reform period.
Intended reforms in the field of music during
the Republican period led to debates on the subjects of European, Turkish,
polyphonic and monophonic music. During this period composers who were
noted for their work included Refik Fersan, Cevdet Cagla, Sadettin Kaynak,
Selahattin Pinar, Suphi Ziya Ozbekkan, Lem'i Atli, Rauf Yekta, Suphi Ezgi,
Huseyin Saadettin Arel and others.
Currently, three groups represent Turkish music.
The first group favors polyphonic music. The second group prefers an individual
interpretation of classical music. Numbered among this group were the Nevzat
Atlig chorus, Bekir Sidki Sezgin, Meral Ugurlu, Niyzi Sayin, Necdet Yasar,
Ihsan Ozgen, Erol Deran, Cinucen Tanrikorur and others. The third group
preserves traditional ties
coupledwith high quality and includes Yalcin
Tura, Mutlu Torun, Ruhi Ayangil and others of the "new wave."
Turkish music is a product of Turkish thoughts
and feelings and of migrations and changing geographical positions. It
expresses the changes in the ways of life of the Turkish people throughout
history.
Ballads and songs are especially important. Turkish
folk music encompasses all natural and communal events. It branches out
into "Kirik Hava" and "Uzun Hava" and makes use of wind, string, and rhythm
instruments. From 1926 onwards various state enterprises have conducted
research into Turkish folk music.
In 1826, Sultan Mahmut II attempted to modernize
the Turkish Army and organize a military band similar to the bands of western
armies, and in 1828 the Imperial Band was founded.
After the proclamation of the Republic, the orchestra
was renamed the Riyaseti Cumhur Musiki Heyeti, and in 1958 it was again
renamed the Presidential Symphony Orchestra, its current title. The Music
Teachers Academy was opened in 1924 and the Ankara State Conservatory in
1936. Today there are conservatories in both Istanbul and Izmir.
The flow of pop music from the west has also influenced
Turkey, and since the 1960's Turkey has followed world trends and produced
artists in this field of music.
ARCHITECTURE
In their homeland in Central Asia, Turks lived
in dome-like tents appropriate to their natural surroundings. These tents
later influenced Turkish architecture and ornamental arts. When the Seljuk
Turks first arrived in Iran, they encountered an architecture based on
old traditions. Integrating this with elements from their own traditions,
the Seljuks produced new types of structures, most notably the "medrese."
The first medreses (moslem theological schools) were constructed in the
11th century by the famous minister Nizamulmulk, during the time of Alpaslan
and Meliksah. The most important ones are the three government medreses
in Nisabur, Tus and Baghdad and the Hargerd Medrese in Horasan.
Another area in which the Seljuks contributed
to architecture is that of tomb monument. These can be divided into two
types: vaults and large dome-like mausoleums.
The Ribati-Serif and the Ribati Anasirvan are
examples of surviving 12th century Seljuk caravansarays, which offered
shelter for travellers. Seljuk buildings generally incorporate brick, while
the inner and outer walls are decorated in a material made by mixing marble,
powder, lime and plaster.
In typical buildings of the Anatolian Seljuk period,
the major construction material was wood, laid horizontally except along
windows and doors where columns were considered more decorative.
Turkish architecture reached its peak during the
Ottoman period. Ottoman architecture, influenced by Seljuk, Byzantine and
Arab architecture, came to develop a style all of its own.
The years 1300-1453 constitute the early or first
Ottoman period, when Ottoman art was in search of new ideas. This periodwitnessed
three types of mosques: tiered, single-domed and subline-angled mosques.
The Junior Haci Ozbek Mosue (1333) in Iznik, the first important center
of Ottoman art, is the first example of an Ottoman single-domed mosque.
The domed architectural style evolved from Bursa
and Edirne. The Holy Mosque in Bursa was the first Seljuk mosque to be
converted into a domed one. Edirne was the last Ottoman capital before
Istanbul, and it is here that we witness the final stages in the architectural
development that culminated in the construction of the great mosques of
Istanbul. The buildings constructed in
Istanbul during the period between the capture
of the city and the construction of the Istanbul Beyazit mosque are
also consideredworks of the early period. Among these are the Faith mosque
(1470), Mahmutpasa mosque, the tiled palace and Topkapi Palace. The Ottomans
integrated mosques into the community and added soup kitchens, theological
schools, hospitals, Turkish baths and
tombs.
During the classical period mosque plans changed
to include inner and outer courtyards. The inner courtyard and the mosque
were inseparable. The master architect of the classical period, Mimar Sinan,
was born in 1492 in Kayseri and died in Istanbul in the year 1588. Sinan
started a new era in world architecture, creating 334 buildings in various
cities. Mimar Sinan's first important work was the Sehzade Mosque completed
in 1548. His second significant work was the Suleymaniye Mosque and the
surrounding complex, built for Kanuni Sultan Suleyman. The Selimiye mosque
in Edirne was built during the years 1568-74, when Sinan was in his prime
as an architect.The Rustempasa, Mihriman Sultan, Imbrahimpasa, and Sinan
mosques and the Sehzade, Kanuni Sultan Suleyman Hurrem Sultan and Selim
II mausoleums are among Sinan's most renowned works.
During the years 1720-1890, Ottoman art deviated
from the principals of classical times. In the 18th century, during the
Lale, or Tulip, period, Ottoman art came under the influence of the excessive
decoration of the western Baroque and Roccoco styles. Fountains became
the characteristic structures of this period. An eclecticism set in. The
Aksaray Valide mosque is an example of the mixture of Turkish art and Gothic
style.
In Turkish architecture, the years 1890-1930 are
looked upon as the neoclassical period. In this period, Turkish architects
looked into the religious and classical buildings of former times for inspiration
in their attempts to construct a national architecture. Nationalism, developing
strongly after the second Ottoman constitutional period, freed Ottoman
architecture from the influence of western art, and thereby brought about
a new style based on classical Ottoman architecture.
Following this development, the Ismet Pasa Girls'
Institute, the Ankara Faculty of Letters, the Saracoglu district, the Grand
Theater and the Istanbul Hilton paved the way for recognition of contemporary
architecture. During this period, Sedat Hakki Eldem built the Istanbul
Science-Literature Faculty and Emim Onat designed Ataturk's Mausoleum,
in Ankara.
After 1950, the trend in constructing buildings
came to depend more on their purpose, the requirements of the age, awareness
of town planning and the practicality of construction materials. The National
Library designed by Sevki Vanli, the Turkish Historical Society building
by Turgut Cansever, the Istanbul Anatolian Club, Behruz Cinici's Erzurum
Ataturk University, Ankara's Middle East Technical University, the Oren
and Bodrum coastal strips, the Houses of Parliament, the Kayseri Surgical
Clinic designed by Affan Kirimli, the Adana Social Security Headquarters
and the Ankara Medical Faculty Hospitals are all examples of Republican
architecture.
By the 1970s, many old buildings of architectural
significance were converted into hotels and restaurants for public use.
Also during this period, Turkish architectural styles enjoyed a resurgence.
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